/gluon/dal.py

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#!/bin/env python
# -*- coding: utf-8 -*-

"""
This file is part of the web2py Web Framework
Copyrighted by Massimo Di Pierro <mdipierro@cs.depaul.edu>
License: LGPLv3 (http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl.html)

Thanks to
    * Niall Sweeny <niall.sweeny@fonjax.com> for MS SQL support
    * Marcel Leuthi <mluethi@mlsystems.ch> for Oracle support
    * Denes
    * Chris Clark
    * clach05
    * Denes Lengyel
    * and many others who have contributed to current and previous versions

This file contains the DAL support for many relational databases,
including:
- SQLite & SpatiaLite
- MySQL
- Postgres
- Firebird
- Oracle
- MS SQL
- DB2
- Interbase
- Ingres
- Informix (9+ and SE)
- SapDB (experimental)
- Cubrid (experimental)
- CouchDB (experimental)
- MongoDB (in progress)
- Google:nosql
- Google:sql
- Teradata
- IMAP (experimental)

Example of usage:

>>> # from dal import DAL, Field

### create DAL connection (and create DB if it doesn't exist)
>>> db = DAL(('sqlite://storage.sqlite','mysql://a:b@localhost/x'),
... folder=None)

### define a table 'person' (create/alter as necessary)
>>> person = db.define_table('person',Field('name','string'))

### insert a record
>>> id = person.insert(name='James')

### retrieve it by id
>>> james = person(id)

### retrieve it by name
>>> james = person(name='James')

### retrieve it by arbitrary query
>>> query = (person.name=='James') & (person.name.startswith('J'))
>>> james = db(query).select(person.ALL)[0]

### update one record
>>> james.update_record(name='Jim')
<Row {'id': 1, 'name': 'Jim'}>

### update multiple records by query
>>> db(person.name.like('J%')).update(name='James')
1

### delete records by query
>>> db(person.name.lower() == 'jim').delete()
0

### retrieve multiple records (rows)
>>> people = db(person).select(orderby=person.name,
... groupby=person.name, limitby=(0,100))

### further filter them
>>> james = people.find(lambda row: row.name == 'James').first()
>>> print james.id, james.name
1 James

### check aggregates
>>> counter = person.id.count()
>>> print db(person).select(counter).first()(counter)
1

### delete one record
>>> james.delete_record()
1

### delete (drop) entire database table
>>> person.drop()

Supported field types:
id string text boolean integer double decimal password upload
blob time date datetime

Supported DAL URI strings:
'sqlite://test.db'
'spatialite://test.db'
'sqlite:memory'
'spatialite:memory'
'jdbc:sqlite://test.db'
'mysql://root:none@localhost/test'
'postgres://mdipierro:password@localhost/test'
'postgres:psycopg2://mdipierro:password@localhost/test'
'postgres:pg8000://mdipierro:password@localhost/test'
'jdbc:postgres://mdipierro:none@localhost/test'
'mssql://web2py:none@A64X2/web2py_test'
'mssql2://web2py:none@A64X2/web2py_test' # alternate mappings
'oracle://username:password@database'
'firebird://user:password@server:3050/database'
'db2://DSN=dsn;UID=user;PWD=pass'
'firebird://username:password@hostname/database'
'firebird_embedded://username:password@c://path'
'informix://user:password@server:3050/database'
'informixu://user:password@server:3050/database' # unicode informix
'ingres://database'  # or use an ODBC connection string, e.g. 'ingres://dsn=dsn_name'
'google:datastore' # for google app engine datastore
'google:sql' # for google app engine with sql (mysql compatible)
'teradata://DSN=dsn;UID=user;PWD=pass; DATABASE=database' # experimental
'imap://user:password@server:port' # experimental

For more info:
help(DAL)
help(Field)
"""

###################################################################################
# this file only exposes DAL and Field
###################################################################################

__all__ = ['DAL', 'Field']

MAXCHARLENGTH = 2**15 # not quite but reasonable default max char length
DEFAULTLENGTH = {'string':512,
                 'password':512,
                 'upload':512,
                 'text':2**15,
                 'blob':2**31}
TIMINGSSIZE = 100
SPATIALLIBS = {
    'Windows':'libspatialite',
    'Linux':'libspatialite.so',
    'Darwin':'libspatialite.dylib'
    }
DEFAULT_URI = 'sqlite://dummy.db'

import re
import sys
import locale
import os
import types
import datetime
import threading
import time
import csv
import cgi
import copy
import socket
import logging
import base64
import shutil
import marshal
import decimal
import struct
import urllib
import hashlib
import uuid
import glob
import traceback
import platform

PYTHON_VERSION = sys.version_info[0]
if PYTHON_VERSION == 2:
    import cPickle as pickle
    import cStringIO as StringIO
    import copy_reg as copyreg
    hashlib_md5 = hashlib.md5
    bytes, unicode = str, unicode
else:
    import pickle
    from io import StringIO as StringIO
    import copyreg
    long = int
    hashlib_md5 = lambda s: hashlib.md5(bytes(s,'utf8'))
    bytes, unicode = bytes, str

CALLABLETYPES = (types.LambdaType, types.FunctionType,
                 types.BuiltinFunctionType,
                 types.MethodType, types.BuiltinMethodType)

TABLE_ARGS = set(
    ('migrate','primarykey','fake_migrate','format','redefine',
     'singular','plural','trigger_name','sequence_name',
     'common_filter','polymodel','table_class','on_define',))

SELECT_ARGS = set(
    ('orderby', 'groupby', 'limitby','required', 'cache', 'left',
     'distinct', 'having', 'join','for_update', 'processor','cacheable'))

ogetattr = object.__getattribute__
osetattr = object.__setattr__
exists = os.path.exists
pjoin = os.path.join

###################################################################################
# following checks allow the use of dal without web2py, as a standalone module
###################################################################################
try:
    from utils import web2py_uuid
except (ImportError, SystemError):
    import uuid
    def web2py_uuid(): return str(uuid.uuid4())

try:
    import portalocker
    have_portalocker = True
except ImportError:
    have_portalocker = False

try:
    import serializers
    have_serializers = True
except ImportError:
    have_serializers = False
    try:
        import json as simplejson
    except ImportError:
        try:
            import gluon.contrib.simplejson as simplejson
        except ImportError:
            simplejson = None

try:
    import validators
    have_validators = True
except (ImportError, SyntaxError):
    have_validators = False

LOGGER = logging.getLogger("web2py.dal")
DEFAULT = lambda:0

GLOBAL_LOCKER = threading.RLock()
THREAD_LOCAL = threading.local()

# internal representation of tables with field
#  <table>.<field>, tables and fields may only be [a-zA-Z0-9_]

REGEX_TYPE = re.compile('^([\w\_\:]+)')
REGEX_DBNAME = re.compile('^(\w+)(\:\w+)*')
REGEX_W = re.compile('^\w+$')
REGEX_TABLE_DOT_FIELD = re.compile('^(\w+)\.(\w+)$')
REGEX_UPLOAD_PATTERN = re.compile('(?P<table>[\w\-]+)\.(?P<field>[\w\-]+)\.(?P<uuidkey>[\w\-]+)\.(?P<name>\w+)\.\w+$')
REGEX_CLEANUP_FN = re.compile('[\'"\s;]+')
REGEX_UNPACK = re.compile('(?<!\|)\|(?!\|)')
REGEX_PYTHON_KEYWORDS = re.compile('^(and|del|from|not|while|as|elif|global|or|with|assert|else|if|pass|yield|break|except|import|print|class|exec|in|raise|continue|finally|is|return|def|for|lambda|try)$')
REGEX_SELECT_AS_PARSER = re.compile("\s+AS\s+(\S+)")
REGEX_CONST_STRING = re.compile('(\"[^\"]*?\")|(\'[^\']*?\')')
REGEX_SEARCH_PATTERN = re.compile('^{[^\.]+\.[^\.]+(\.(lt|gt|le|ge|eq|ne|contains|startswith|year|month|day|hour|minute|second))?(\.not)?}$')
REGEX_SQUARE_BRACKETS = re.compile('^.+\[.+\]$')
REGEX_STORE_PATTERN = re.compile('\.(?P<e>\w{1,5})$')
REGEX_QUOTES = re.compile("'[^']*'")
REGEX_ALPHANUMERIC = re.compile('^[0-9a-zA-Z]\w*$')
REGEX_PASSWORD = re.compile('\://([^:@]*)\:')
REGEX_NOPASSWD = re.compile('(?<=\:)([^:@/]+)(?=@.+)')

# list of drivers will be built on the fly
# and lists only what is available
DRIVERS = []

try:
    from new import classobj
    from google.appengine.ext import db as gae
    from google.appengine.api import namespace_manager, rdbms
    from google.appengine.api.datastore_types import Key  ### for belongs on ID
    from google.appengine.ext.db.polymodel import PolyModel
    DRIVERS.append('google')
except ImportError:
    pass

if not 'google' in DRIVERS:

    try:
        from pysqlite2 import dbapi2 as sqlite2
        DRIVERS.append('SQLite(sqlite2)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no SQLite drivers pysqlite2.dbapi2')

    try:
        from sqlite3 import dbapi2 as sqlite3
        DRIVERS.append('SQLite(sqlite3)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no SQLite drivers sqlite3')

    try:
        # first try contrib driver, then from site-packages (if installed)
        try:
            import contrib.pymysql as pymysql
            # monkeypatch pymysql because they havent fixed the bug:
            # https://github.com/petehunt/PyMySQL/issues/86
            pymysql.ESCAPE_REGEX = re.compile("'")
            pymysql.ESCAPE_MAP = {"'": "''"}
            # end monkeypatch
        except ImportError:
            import pymysql
        DRIVERS.append('MySQL(pymysql)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no MySQL driver pymysql')

    try:
        import MySQLdb
        DRIVERS.append('MySQL(MySQLdb)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no MySQL driver MySQLDB')


    try:
        import psycopg2
        from psycopg2.extensions import adapt as psycopg2_adapt
        DRIVERS.append('PostgreSQL(psycopg2)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no PostgreSQL driver psycopg2')

    try:
        # first try contrib driver, then from site-packages (if installed)
        try:
            import contrib.pg8000.dbapi as pg8000
        except ImportError:
            import pg8000.dbapi as pg8000
        DRIVERS.append('PostgreSQL(pg8000)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no PostgreSQL driver pg8000')

    try:
        import cx_Oracle
        DRIVERS.append('Oracle(cx_Oracle)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no Oracle driver cx_Oracle')

    try:
        try:
            import pyodbc
        except ImportError:
            try:
                import contrib.pypyodbc as pyodbc
            except Exception, e:
                raise ImportError(str(e))
        DRIVERS.append('MSSQL(pyodbc)')
        DRIVERS.append('DB2(pyodbc)')
        DRIVERS.append('Teradata(pyodbc)')
        DRIVERS.append('Ingres(pyodbc)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no MSSQL/DB2/Teradata/Ingres driver pyodbc')

    try:
        import Sybase
        DRIVERS.append('Sybase(Sybase)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no Sybase driver')

    try:
        import kinterbasdb
        DRIVERS.append('Interbase(kinterbasdb)')
        DRIVERS.append('Firebird(kinterbasdb)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no Firebird/Interbase driver kinterbasdb')

    try:
        import fdb
        DRIVERS.append('Firbird(fdb)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no Firebird driver fdb')
#####
    try:
        import firebirdsql
        DRIVERS.append('Firebird(firebirdsql)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no Firebird driver firebirdsql')

    try:
        import informixdb
        DRIVERS.append('Informix(informixdb)')
        LOGGER.warning('Informix support is experimental')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no Informix driver informixdb')

    try:
        import sapdb
        DRIVERS.append('SQL(sapdb)')
        LOGGER.warning('SAPDB support is experimental')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no SAP driver sapdb')

    try:
        import cubriddb
        DRIVERS.append('Cubrid(cubriddb)')
        LOGGER.warning('Cubrid support is experimental')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no Cubrid driver cubriddb')

    try:
        from com.ziclix.python.sql import zxJDBC
        import java.sql
        # Try sqlite jdbc driver from http://www.zentus.com/sqlitejdbc/
        from org.sqlite import JDBC # required by java.sql; ensure we have it
        zxJDBC_sqlite = java.sql.DriverManager
        DRIVERS.append('PostgreSQL(zxJDBC)')
        DRIVERS.append('SQLite(zxJDBC)')
        LOGGER.warning('zxJDBC support is experimental')
        is_jdbc = True
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no SQLite/PostgreSQL driver zxJDBC')
        is_jdbc = False

    try:
        import couchdb
        DRIVERS.append('CouchDB(couchdb)')
    except ImportError:
        LOGGER.debug('no Couchdb driver couchdb')

    try:
        import pymongo
        DRIVERS.append('MongoDB(pymongo)')
    except:
        LOGGER.debug('no MongoDB driver pymongo')

    try:
        import imaplib
        DRIVERS.append('IMAP(imaplib)')
    except:
        LOGGER.debug('no IMAP driver imaplib')

PLURALIZE_RULES = [
    (re.compile('child$'), re.compile('child$'), 'children'),
    (re.compile('oot$'), re.compile('oot$'), 'eet'),
    (re.compile('ooth$'), re.compile('ooth$'), 'eeth'),
    (re.compile('l[eo]af$'), re.compile('l([eo])af$'), 'l\\1aves'),
    (re.compile('sis$'), re.compile('sis$'), 'ses'),
    (re.compile('man$'), re.compile('man$'), 'men'),
    (re.compile('ife$'), re.compile('ife$'), 'ives'),
    (re.compile('eau$'), re.compile('eau$'), 'eaux'),
    (re.compile('lf$'), re.compile('lf$'), 'lves'),
    (re.compile('[sxz]$'), re.compile('$'), 'es'),
    (re.compile('[^aeioudgkprt]h$'), re.compile('$'), 'es'),
    (re.compile('(qu|[^aeiou])y$'), re.compile('y$'), 'ies'),
    (re.compile('$'), re.compile('$'), 's'),
    ]

def pluralize(singular, rules=PLURALIZE_RULES):
    for line in rules:
        re_search, re_sub, replace = line
        plural = re_search.search(singular) and re_sub.sub(replace, singular)
        if plural: return plural

def hide_password(uri):
    return REGEX_NOPASSWD.sub('******',uri)

def OR(a,b):
    return a|b

def AND(a,b):
    return a&b

def IDENTITY(x): return x

def varquote_aux(name,quotestr='%s'):
    return name if REGEX_W.match(name) else quotestr % name

if 'google' in DRIVERS:

    is_jdbc = False

    class GAEDecimalProperty(gae.Property):
        """
        GAE decimal implementation
        """
        data_type = decimal.Decimal

        def __init__(self, precision, scale, **kwargs):
            super(GAEDecimalProperty, self).__init__(self, **kwargs)
            d = '1.'
            for x in range(scale):
                d += '0'
            self.round = decimal.Decimal(d)

        def get_value_for_datastore(self, model_instance):
            value = super(GAEDecimalProperty, self)\
                .get_value_for_datastore(model_instance)
            if value is None or value == '':
                return None
            else:
                return str(value)

        def make_value_from_datastore(self, value):
            if value is None or value == '':
                return None
            else:
                return decimal.Decimal(value).quantize(self.round)

        def validate(self, value):
            value = super(GAEDecimalProperty, self).validate(value)
            if value is None or isinstance(value, decimal.Decimal):
                return value
            elif isinstance(value, basestring):
                return decimal.Decimal(value)
            raise gae.BadValueError("Property %s must be a Decimal or string."\
                                        % self.name)

###################################################################################
# class that handles connection pooling (all adapters are derived from this one)
###################################################################################

class ConnectionPool(object):

    POOLS = {}
    check_active_connection = True

    @staticmethod
    def set_folder(folder):
        THREAD_LOCAL.folder = folder

    # ## this allows gluon to commit/rollback all dbs in this thread

    def close(self,action='commit',really=True):
        if action:
            if callable(action):
                action(self)
            else:
                getattr(self, action)()
        # ## if you want pools, recycle this connection
        if self.pool_size:
            GLOBAL_LOCKER.acquire()
            pool = ConnectionPool.POOLS[self.uri]
            if len(pool) < self.pool_size:
                pool.append(self.connection)
                really = False
            GLOBAL_LOCKER.release()
        if really:
            self.close_connection()
        self.connection = None

    @staticmethod
    def close_all_instances(action):
        """ to close cleanly databases in a multithreaded environment """
        dbs = getattr(THREAD_LOCAL,'db_instances',{}).items()
        for db_uid, db_group in dbs:
            for db in db_group:
                if hasattr(db,'_adapter'):
                    db._adapter.close(action)
        getattr(THREAD_LOCAL,'db_instances',{}).clear()
        getattr(THREAD_LOCAL,'db_instances_zombie',{}).clear()
        if callable(action):
            action(None)
        return

    def find_or_make_work_folder(self):
        """ this actually does not make the folder. it has to be there """
        self.folder = getattr(THREAD_LOCAL,'folder','')

        # Creating the folder if it does not exist
        if False and self.folder and not exists(self.folder):
            os.mkdir(self.folder)

    def after_connection_hook(self):
        """hook for the after_connection parameter"""
        if callable(self._after_connection):
            self._after_connection(self)
        self.after_connection()

    def after_connection(self):
        """ this it is supposed to be overloaded by adapters"""
        pass

    def reconnect(self, f=None, cursor=True):
        """
        this function defines: self.connection and self.cursor
        (iff cursor is True)
        if self.pool_size>0 it will try pull the connection from the pool
        if the connection is not active (closed by db server) it will loop
        if not self.pool_size or no active connections in pool makes a new one
        """
        if getattr(self,'connection',None) != None:
            return
        if f is None:
            f = self.connector

        if not self.pool_size:
            self.connection = f()
            self.cursor = cursor and self.connection.cursor()
        else:
            uri = self.uri
            POOLS = ConnectionPool.POOLS
            while True:
                GLOBAL_LOCKER.acquire()
                if not uri in POOLS:
                    POOLS[uri] = []
                if POOLS[uri]:
                    self.connection = POOLS[uri].pop()
                    GLOBAL_LOCKER.release()
                    self.cursor = cursor and self.connection.cursor()
                    try:
                        if self.cursor and self.check_active_connection:
                            self.execute('SELECT 1;')
                        break
                    except:
                        pass
                else:
                    GLOBAL_LOCKER.release()
                    self.connection = f()
                    self.cursor = cursor and self.connection.cursor()
                    break
        self.after_connection_hook()


###################################################################################
# this is a generic adapter that does nothing; all others are derived from this one
###################################################################################

class BaseAdapter(ConnectionPool):
    native_json = False
    driver = None
    driver_name = None
    drivers = () # list of drivers from which to pick
    connection = None
    maxcharlength = MAXCHARLENGTH
    commit_on_alter_table = False
    support_distributed_transaction = False
    uploads_in_blob = False
    can_select_for_update = True

    TRUE = 'T'
    FALSE = 'F'
    types = {
        'boolean': 'CHAR(1)',
        'string': 'CHAR(%(length)s)',
        'text': 'TEXT',
        'json': 'TEXT',
        'password': 'CHAR(%(length)s)',
        'blob': 'BLOB',
        'upload': 'CHAR(%(length)s)',
        'integer': 'INTEGER',
        'bigint': 'INTEGER',
        'float':'DOUBLE',
        'double': 'DOUBLE',
        'decimal': 'DOUBLE',
        'date': 'DATE',
        'time': 'TIME',
        'datetime': 'TIMESTAMP',
        'id': 'INTEGER PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT',
        'reference': 'INTEGER REFERENCES %(foreign_key)s ON DELETE %(on_delete_action)s',
        'list:integer': 'TEXT',
        'list:string': 'TEXT',
        'list:reference': 'TEXT',
        # the two below are only used when DAL(...bigint_id=True) and replace 'id','reference'
        'big-id': 'BIGINT PRIMARY KEY AUTOINCREMENT',
        'big-reference': 'BIGINT REFERENCES %(foreign_key)s ON DELETE %(on_delete_action)s',
        }

    def id_query(self, table):
        return table._id != None

    def adapt(self, obj):
        return "'%s'" % obj.replace("'", "''")

    def smart_adapt(self, obj):
        if isinstance(obj,(int,float)):
            return str(obj)
        return self.adapt(str(obj))

    def integrity_error(self):
        return self.driver.IntegrityError

    def operational_error(self):
        return self.driver.OperationalError

    def file_exists(self, filename):
        """
        to be used ONLY for files that on GAE may not be on filesystem
        """
        return exists(filename)

    def file_open(self, filename, mode='rb', lock=True):
        """
        to be used ONLY for files that on GAE may not be on filesystem
        """
        if have_portalocker and lock:
            fileobj = portalocker.LockedFile(filename,mode)
        else:
            fileobj = open(filename,mode)
        return fileobj

    def file_close(self, fileobj):
        """
        to be used ONLY for files that on GAE may not be on filesystem
        """
        if fileobj:
            fileobj.close()

    def file_delete(self, filename):
        os.unlink(filename)

    def find_driver(self,adapter_args,uri=None):
        if getattr(self,'driver',None) != None:
            return
        drivers_available = [driver for driver in self.drivers
                             if driver in globals()]
        if uri:
            items = uri.split('://',1)[0].split(':')
            request_driver = items[1] if len(items)>1 else None
        else:
            request_driver = None
        request_driver = request_driver or adapter_args.get('driver')
        if request_driver:
            if request_driver in drivers_available:
                self.driver_name = request_driver
                self.driver = globals().get(request_driver)
            else:
                raise RuntimeError("driver %s not available" % request_driver)
        elif drivers_available:
            self.driver_name = drivers_available[0]
            self.driver = globals().get(self.driver_name)
        else:
            raise RuntimeError("no driver available %s" % str(self.drivers))


    def __init__(self, db,uri,pool_size=0, folder=None, db_codec='UTF-8',
                 credential_decoder=IDENTITY, driver_args={},
                 adapter_args={},do_connect=True, after_connection=None):
        self.db = db
        self.dbengine = "None"
        self.uri = uri
        self.pool_size = pool_size
        self.folder = folder
        self.db_codec = db_codec
        self._after_connection = after_connection
        class Dummy(object):
            lastrowid = 1
            def __getattr__(self, value):
                return lambda *a, **b: []
        self.connection = Dummy()
        self.cursor = Dummy()

    def sequence_name(self,tablename):
        return '%s_sequence' % tablename

    def trigger_name(self,tablename):
        return '%s_sequence' % tablename

    def varquote(self,name):
        return name

    def create_table(self, table,
                     migrate=True,
                     fake_migrate=False,
                     polymodel=None):
        db = table._db
        fields = []
        # PostGIS geo fields are added after the table has been created
        postcreation_fields = []
        sql_fields = {}
        sql_fields_aux = {}
        TFK = {}
        tablename = table._tablename
        sortable = 0
        types = self.types
        for field in table:
            sortable += 1
            field_name = field.name
            field_type = field.type
            if isinstance(field_type,SQLCustomType):
                ftype = field_type.native or field_type.type
            elif field_type.startswith('reference'):
                referenced = field_type[10:].strip()
                if referenced == '.':
                    referenced = tablename
                constraint_name = self.constraint_name(tablename, field_name)
                if not '.' in referenced \
                        and referenced != tablename \
                        and hasattr(table,'_primarykey'):
                    ftype = types['integer']
                else:
                    if hasattr(table,'_primarykey'):
                        rtablename,rfieldname = referenced.split('.')
                        rtable = db[rtablename]
                        rfield = rtable[rfieldname]
                        # must be PK reference or unique
                        if rfieldname in rtable._primarykey or \
                                rfield.unique:
                            ftype = types[rfield.type[:9]] % \
                                dict(length=rfield.length)
                            # multicolumn primary key reference?
                            if not rfield.unique and len(rtable._primarykey)>1:
                                # then it has to be a table level FK
                                if rtablename not in TFK:
                                    TFK[rtablename] = {}
                                TFK[rtablename][rfieldname] = field_name
                            else:
                                ftype = ftype + \
                                    types['reference FK'] % dict(
                                    constraint_name = constraint_name, # should be quoted
                                    foreign_key = '%s (%s)' % (rtablename,
                                                               rfieldname),
                                    table_name = tablename,
                                    field_name = field_name,
                                    on_delete_action=field.ondelete)
                    else:
                        # make a guess here for circular references
                        if referenced in db:
                            id_fieldname = db[referenced]._id.name
                        elif referenced == tablename:
                            id_fieldname = table._id.name
                        else: #make a guess
                            id_fieldname = 'id'
                        ftype = types[field_type[:9]] % dict(
                            index_name = field_name+'__idx',
                            field_name = field_name,
                            constraint_name = constraint_name,
                            foreign_key = '%s (%s)' % (referenced,
                                                       id_fieldname),
                            on_delete_action=field.ondelete)
            elif field_type.startswith('list:reference'):
                ftype = types[field_type[:14]]
            elif field_type.startswith('decimal'):
                precision, scale = map(int,field_type[8:-1].split(','))
                ftype = types[field_type[:7]] % \
                    dict(precision=precision,scale=scale)
            elif field_type.startswith('geo'):
                if not hasattr(self,'srid'):
                    raise RuntimeError('Adapter does not support geometry')
                srid = self.srid
                geotype, parms = field_type[:-1].split('(')
                if not geotype in types:
                    raise SyntaxError(
                        'Field: unknown field type: %s for %s' \
                        % (field_type, field_name))
                ftype = types[geotype]
                if self.dbengine == 'postgres' and geotype == 'geometry':
                    # parameters: schema, srid, dimension
                    dimension = 2 # GIS.dimension ???
                    parms = parms.split(',')
                    if len(parms) == 3:
                        schema, srid, dimension = parms
                    elif len(parms) == 2:
                        schema, srid = parms
                    else:
                        schema = parms[0]
                    ftype = "SELECT AddGeometryColumn ('%%(schema)s', '%%(tablename)s', '%%(fieldname)s', %%(srid)s, '%s', %%(dimension)s);" % types[geotype]
                    ftype = ftype % dict(schema=schema,
                                         tablename=tablename,
                                         fieldname=field_name, srid=srid,
                                         dimension=dimension)
                    postcreation_fields.append(ftype)
            elif not field_type in types:
                raise SyntaxError('Field: unknown field type: %s for %s' % \
                    (field_type, field_name))
            else:
                ftype = types[field_type]\
                     % dict(length=field.length)
            if not field_type.startswith('id') and \
                    not field_type.startswith('reference'):
                if field.notnull:
                    ftype += ' NOT NULL'
                else:
                    ftype += self.ALLOW_NULL()
                if field.unique:
                    ftype += ' UNIQUE'
                if field.custom_qualifier:
                    ftype += ' %s' % field.custom_qualifier

            # add to list of fields
            sql_fields[field_name] = dict(
                length=field.length,
                unique=field.unique,
                notnull=field.notnull,
                sortable=sortable,
                type=str(field_type),
                sql=ftype)

            if field.notnull and not field.default is None:
                # Caveat: sql_fields and sql_fields_aux
                # differ for default values.
                # sql_fields is used to trigger migrations and sql_fields_aux
                # is used for create tables.
                # The reason is that we do not want to trigger
                # a migration simply because a default value changes.
                not_null = self.NOT_NULL(field.default, field_type)
                ftype = ftype.replace('NOT NULL', not_null)
            sql_fields_aux[field_name] = dict(sql=ftype)
            # Postgres - PostGIS:
            # geometry fields are added after the table has been created, not now
            if not (self.dbengine == 'postgres' and \
                        field_type.startswith('geom')):
                fields.append('%s %s' % (field_name, ftype))
        other = ';'

        # backend-specific extensions to fields
        if self.dbengine == 'mysql':
            if not hasattr(table, "_primarykey"):
                fields.append('PRIMARY KEY(%s)' % table._id.name)
            other = ' ENGINE=InnoDB CHARACTER SET utf8;'

        fields = ',\n    '.join(fields)
        for rtablename in TFK:
            rfields = TFK[rtablename]
            pkeys = db[rtablename]._primarykey
            fkeys = [ rfields[k] for k in pkeys ]
            fields = fields + ',\n    ' + \
                types['reference TFK'] % dict(
                table_name = tablename,
                field_name=', '.join(fkeys),
                foreign_table = rtablename,
                foreign_key = ', '.join(pkeys),
                on_delete_action = field.ondelete)

        if hasattr(table,'_primarykey'):
            query = "CREATE TABLE %s(\n    %s,\n    %s) %s" % \
                (tablename, fields,
                 self.PRIMARY_KEY(', '.join(table._primarykey)),other)
        else:
            query = "CREATE TABLE %s(\n    %s\n)%s" % \
                (tablename, fields, other)

        if self.uri.startswith('sqlite:///') \
                or self.uri.startswith('spatialite:///'):
            path_encoding = sys.getfilesystemencoding() \
                or locale.getdefaultlocale()[1] or 'utf8'
            dbpath = self.uri[9:self.uri.rfind('/')]\
                .decode('utf8').encode(path_encoding)
        else:
            dbpath = self.folder

        if not migrate:
            return query
        elif self.uri.startswith('sqlite:memory')\
                or self.uri.startswith('spatialite:memory'):
            table._dbt = None
        elif isinstance(migrate, str):
            table._dbt = pjoin(dbpath, migrate)
        else:
            table._dbt = pjoin(
                dbpath, '%s_%s.table' % (table._db._uri_hash, tablename))

        if table._dbt:
            table._loggername = pjoin(dbpath, 'sql.log')
            logfile = self.file_open(table._loggername, 'a')
        else:
            logfile = None
        if not table._dbt or not self.file_exists(table._dbt):
            if table._dbt:
                logfile.write('timestamp: %s\n'
                               % datetime.datetime.today().isoformat())
                logfile.write(query + '\n')
            if not fake_migrate:
                self.create_sequence_and_triggers(query,table)
                table._db.commit()
                # Postgres geom fields are added now,
                # after the table has been created
                for query in postcreation_fields:
                    self.execute(query)
                    table._db.commit()
            if table._dbt:
                tfile = self.file_open(table._dbt, 'w')
                pickle.dump(sql_fields, tfile)
                self.file_close(tfile)
                if fake_migrate:
                    logfile.write('faked!\n')
                else:
                    logfile.write('success!\n')
        else:
            tfile = self.file_open(table._dbt, 'r')
            try:
                sql_fields_old = pickle.load(tfile)
            except EOFError:
                self.file_close(tfile)
                self.file_close(logfile)
                raise RuntimeError('File %s appears corrupted' % table._dbt)
            self.file_close(tfile)
            if sql_fields != sql_fields_old:
                self.migrate_table(table,
                                   sql_fields, sql_fields_old,
                                   sql_fields_aux, logfile,
                                   fake_migrate=fake_migrate)
        self.file_close(logfile)
        return query

    def migrate_table(
        self,
        table,
        sql_fields,
        sql_fields_old,
        sql_fields_aux,
        logfile,
        fake_migrate=False,
        ):
        db = table._db
        db._migrated.append(table._tablename)
        tablename = table._tablename
        def fix(item):
            k,v=item
            if not isinstance(v,dict):
                v=dict(type='unkown',sql=v)
            return k.lower(),v
        # make sure all field names are lower case to avoid
        # migrations because of case cahnge
        sql_fields = dict(map(fix,sql_fields.iteritems()))
        sql_fields_old = dict(map(fix,sql_fields_old.iteritems()))
        sql_fields_aux = dict(map(fix,sql_fields_aux.iteritems()))
        if db._debug:
            logging.debug('migrating %s to %s' % (sql_fields_old,sql_fields))

        keys = sql_fields.keys()
        for key in sql_fields_old:
            if not key in keys:
                keys.append(key)
        new_add = self.concat_add(tablename)

        metadata_change = False
        sql_fields_current = copy.copy(sql_fields_old)
        for key in keys:
            query = None
            if not key in sql_fields_old:
                sql_fields_current[key] = sql_fields[key]
                if self.dbengine in ('postgres',) and \
                   sql_fields[key]['type'].startswith('geometry'):
                    # 'sql' == ftype in sql
                    query = [ sql_fields[key]['sql'] ]
                else:
                    query = ['ALTER TABLE %s ADD %s %s;' % \
                         (tablename, key,
                          sql_fields_aux[key]['sql'].replace(', ', new_add))]
                metadata_change = True
            elif self.dbengine in ('sqlite', 'spatialite'):
                if key in sql_fields:
                    sql_fields_current[key] = sql_fields[key]
                metadata_change = True
            elif not key in sql_fields:
                del sql_fields_current[key]
                ftype = sql_fields_old[key]['type']
                if self.dbengine in ('postgres',) \
                        and ftype.startswith('geometry'):
                    geotype, parms = ftype[:-1].split('(')
                    schema = parms.split(',')[0]
                    query = [ "SELECT DropGeometryColumn ('%(schema)s', '%(table)s', '%(field)s');" % dict(schema=schema, table=tablename, field=key,) ]
                elif not self.dbengine in ('firebird',):
                    query = ['ALTER TABLE %s DROP COLUMN %s;'
                             % (tablename, key)]
                else:
                    query = ['ALTER TABLE %s DROP %s;' % (tablename, key)]
                metadata_change = True
            elif sql_fields[key]['sql'] != sql_fields_old[key]['sql'] \
                  and not (key in table.fields and
                           isinstance(table[key].type, SQLCustomType)) \
                  and not sql_fields[key]['type'].startswith('reference')\
                  and not sql_fields[key]['type'].startswith('double')\
                  and not sql_fields[key]['type'].startswith('id'):
                sql_fields_current[key] = sql_fields[key]
                t = tablename
                tt = sql_fields_aux[key]['sql'].replace(', ', new_add)
                if not self.dbengine in ('firebird',):
                    query = ['ALTER TABLE %s ADD %s__tmp %s;' % (t, key, tt),
                             'UPDATE %s SET %s__tmp=%s;' % (t, key, key),
                             'ALTER TABLE %s DROP COLUMN %s;' % (t, key),
                             'ALTER TABLE %s ADD %s %s;' % (t, key, tt),
                             'UPDATE %s SET %s=%s__tmp;' % (t, key, key),
                             'ALTER TABLE %s DROP COLUMN %s__tmp;' % (t, key)]
                else:
                    query = ['ALTER TABLE %s ADD %s__tmp %s;' % (t, key, tt),
                             'UPDATE %s SET %s__tmp=%s;' % (t, key, key),
                             'ALTER TABLE %s DROP %s;' % (t, key),
                             'ALTER TABLE %s ADD %s %s;' % (t, key, tt),
                             'UPDATE %s SET %s=%s__tmp;' % (t, key, key),
                             'ALTER TABLE %s DROP %s__tmp;' % (t, key)]
                metadata_change = True
            elif sql_fields[key]['type'] != sql_fields_old[key]['type']:
                sql_fields_current[key] = sql_fields[key]
                metadata_change = True

            if query:
                logfile.write('timestamp: %s\n'
                              % datetime.datetime.today().isoformat())
                db['_lastsql'] = '\n'.join(query)
                for sub_query in query:
                    logfile.write(sub_query + '\n')
                    if not fake_migrate:
                        self.execute(sub_query)
                        # Caveat: mysql, oracle and firebird do not allow multiple alter table
                        # in one transaction so we must commit partial transactions and
                        # update table._dbt after alter table.
                        if db._adapter.commit_on_alter_table:
                            db.commit()
                            tfile = self.file_open(table._dbt, 'w')
                            pickle.dump(sql_fields_current, tfile)
                            self.file_close(tfile)
                            logfile.write('success!\n')
                    else:
                        logfile.write('faked!\n')
            elif metadata_change:
                tfile = self.file_open(table._dbt, 'w')
                pickle.dump(sql_fields_current, tfile)
                self.file_close(tfile)

        if metadata_change and \
                not (query and self.dbengine in ('mysql','oracle','firebird')):
            db.commit()
            tfile = self.file_open(table._dbt, 'w')
            pickle.dump(sql_fields_current, tfile)
            self.file_close(tfile)

    def LOWER(self, first):
        return 'LOWER(%s)' % self.expand(first)

    def UPPER(self, first):
        return 'UPPER(%s)' % self.expand(first)

    def COUNT(self, first, distinct=None):
        return ('COUNT(%s)' if not distinct else 'COUNT(DISTINCT %s)') \
            % self.expand(first)

    def EXTRACT(self, first, what):
        return "EXTRACT(%s FROM %s)" % (what, self.expand(first))

    def EPOCH(self, first):
        return self.EXTRACT(first, 'epoch')

    def AGGREGATE(self, first, what):
        return "%s(%s)" % (what, self.expand(first))

    def JOIN(self):
        return 'JOIN'

    def LEFT_JOIN(self):
        return 'LEFT JOIN'

    def RANDOM(self):
        return 'Random()'

    def NOT_NULL(self, default, field_type):
        return 'NOT NULL DEFAULT %s' % self.represent(default,field_type)

    def COALESCE(self, first, second):
        expressions = [self.expand(first)]+[self.expand(e) for e in second]
        return 'COALESCE(%s)' % ','.join(expressions)

    def COALESCE_ZERO(self, first):
        return 'COALESCE(%s,0)' % self.expand(first)

    def RAW(self, first):
        return first

    def ALLOW_NULL(self):
        return ''

    def SUBSTRING(self, field, parameters):
        return 'SUBSTR(%s,%s,%s)' % (self.expand(field), parameters[0], parameters[1])

    def PRIMARY_KEY(self, key):
        return 'PRIMARY KEY(%s)' % key

    def _drop(self, table, mode):
        return ['DROP TABLE %s;' % table]

    def drop(self, table, mode=''):
        db = table._db
        if table._dbt:
            logfile = self.file_open(table._loggername, 'a')
        queries = self._drop(table, mode)
        for query in queries:
            if table._dbt:
                logfile.write(query + '\n')
            self.execute(query)
        db.commit()
        del db[table._tablename]
        del db.tables[db.tables.index(table._tablename)]
        db._remove_references_to(table)
        if table._dbt:
            self.file_delete(table._dbt)
            logfile.write('success!\n')

    def _insert(self, table, fields):
        if fields:
            keys = ','.join(f.name for f, v in fields)
            values = ','.join(self.expand(v, f.type) for f, v in fields)
            return 'INSERT INTO %s(%s) VALUES (%s);' % (table, keys, values)
        else:
            return self._insert_empty(table)

    def _insert_empty(self, table):
        return 'INSERT INTO %s DEFAULT VALUES;' % table

    def insert(self, table, fields):
        query = self._insert(table,fields)
        try:
            self.execute(query)
        except Exception:
            e = sys.exc_info()[1]
            if isinstance(e,self.integrity_error_class()):
                return None
            raise e
        if hasattr(table,'_primarykey'):
            return dict([(k[0].name, k[1]) for k in fields \
                             if k[0].name in table._primarykey])
        id = self.lastrowid(table)
        if not isinstance(id,int):
            return id
        rid = Reference(id)
        (rid._table, rid._record) = (table, None)
        return rid

    def bulk_insert(self, table, items):
        return [self.insert(table,item) for item in items]

    def NOT(self, first):
        return '(NOT %s)' % self.expand(first)

    def AND(self, first, second):
        return '(%s AND %s)' % (self.expand(first), self.expand(second))

    def OR(self, first, second):
        return '(%s OR %s)' % (self.expand(first), self.expand(second))

    def BELONGS(self, first, second):
        if isinstance(second, str):
            return '(%s IN (%s))' % (self.expand(first), second[:-1])
        elif not second:
            return '(1=0)'
        items = ','.join(self.expand(item, first.type) for item in second)
        return '(%s IN (%s))' % (self.expand(first), items)

    def REGEXP(self, first, second):
        "regular expression operator"
        raise NotImplementedError

    def LIKE(self, first, second):
        "case sensitive like operator"
        raise NotImplementedError

    def ILIKE(self, first, second):
        "case in-sensitive like operator"
        return '(%s LIKE %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                                 self.expand(second, 'string'))

    def STARTSWITH(self, first, second):
        return '(%s LIKE %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                                 self.expand(second+'%', 'string'))

    def ENDSWITH(self, first, second):
        return '(%s LIKE %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                                 self.expand('%'+second, 'string'))

    def CONTAINS(self, first, second, case_sensitive=False):
        if isinstance(second,Expression):
            field = self.expand(first)
            expr = self.expand(second,'string')
            if first.type.startswith('list:'):
                expr = 'CONCAT("|", %s, "|")' % expr
            elif not first.type in ('string', 'text', 'json'):
                raise RuntimeError("Expression Not Supported")
            return 'INSTR(%s,%s)' % (field, expr)
        else:
            if first.type in ('string', 'text', 'json'):
                key = '%'+str(second).replace('%','%%')+'%'
            elif first.type.startswith('list:'):
                key = '%|'+str(second).replace('|','||').replace('%','%%')+'|%'
            else:
                raise RuntimeError("Expression Not Supported")
            op = case_sensitive and self.LIKE or self.ILIKE
            return op(first,key)

    def EQ(self, first, second=None):
        if second is None:
            return '(%s IS NULL)' % self.expand(first)
        return '(%s = %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                              self.expand(second, first.type))

    def NE(self, first, second=None):
        if second is None:
            return '(%s IS NOT NULL)' % self.expand(first)
        return '(%s <> %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                               self.expand(second, first.type))

    def LT(self,first,second=None):
        if second is None:
            raise RuntimeError("Cannot compare %s < None" % first)
        return '(%s < %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                              self.expand(second,first.type))

    def LE(self,first,second=None):
        if second is None:
            raise RuntimeError("Cannot compare %s <= None" % first)
        return '(%s <= %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                               self.expand(second,first.type))

    def GT(self,first,second=None):
        if second is None:
            raise RuntimeError("Cannot compare %s > None" % first)
        return '(%s > %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                              self.expand(second,first.type))

    def GE(self,first,second=None):
        if second is None:
            raise RuntimeError("Cannot compare %s >= None" % first)
        return '(%s >= %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                               self.expand(second,first.type))

    def ADD(self, first, second):
        return '(%s + %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                              self.expand(second, first.type))

    def SUB(self, first, second):
        return '(%s - %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                              self.expand(second, first.type))

    def MUL(self, first, second):
        return '(%s * %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                              self.expand(second, first.type))

    def DIV(self, first, second):
        return '(%s / %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                              self.expand(second, first.type))

    def MOD(self, first, second):
        return '(%s %% %s)' % (self.expand(first),
                               self.expand(second, first.type))

    def AS(self, first, second):
        return '%s AS %s' % (self.expand(first), second)

    def ON(self, first, second):
        if use_common_filters(second):
            second = self.common_filter(second,[first._tablename])
        return '%s ON %s' % (self.expand(first), self.expand(second))

    def INVERT(self, first):
        return '%s DESC' % self.expand(first)

    def COMMA(self, first, second):
        return '%s, %s' % (self.expand(first), self.expand(second))

    def expand(self, expression, field_type=None):
        if isinstance(expression, Field):
            return '%s.%s' % (expression.tablename, expression.name)
        elif isinstance(expression, (Expression, Query)):
            first = expression.first
            second = expression.second
            op = expression.op
            optional_args = expression.optional_args or {}
            if not second is None:
                return op(first, second, **optional_args)
            elif not first is None:
                return op(first,**optional_args)
            elif isinstance(op, str):
                if op.endswith(';'):
                    op=op[:-1]
                return '(%s)' % op
            else:
                return op()
        elif field_type:
            return str(self.represent(expression,field_type))
        elif isinstance(expression,(list,tuple)):
            return ','.join(self.represent(item,field_type) \
                                for item in expression)
        elif isinstance(expression, bool):
            return '1' if expression else '0'
        else:
            return str(expression)

    def alias(self, table, alias):
        """
        Given a t…